The Correspondence Library

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The Correspondence Library is a compilation of sound changes and cognates for a wide variety of languages as assembled by the ZBB community.

Symbols Used:

C = Any consonant
V = Any vowel
" = Stress
O = Any obstruent
S = A stop (plosive)
N = A nasal
L = A liquid
F = A fricative
A = An affricate
B = A back vowel
E = A front vowel
W = A semivowel
Ø = No sound (null; zero)
# = Word boundary
! = Except for...
$ = Syllable boundary
% = A syllable / One syllable away
* = Any phoneme

Contents

Indo-European

Indo-European to Common Germanic

Siride

  • bʱ, dʱ, ɡʱ → β, ð, ɣ
  • b, d, ɡ → p, t, k
  • p, t, k → f, θ, x
  • f, θ, x → β, ð, ɣ /Except initially or following IE stress
  • s → z /Except initially or following IE stress
  • i, j → j /V[+short]C_
  • i, j → ij
  • u, w → w /V[+short]C_
  • u, w → uw
  • aː → oː
  • e → i
  • eː → æː
  • o → a
  • ei → iː
  • eːi → eː (?)
  • oi → ai
  • oːi → oː (?)
  • ai → ai
  • aːi → oː (?)
  • eu → iu
  • ou → au


Common Germanic to West Germanic

Siride

  • β, ð, ɣ → b, d, ɡ /#_, V[+stress]_
  • z → r or Ø
  • Cj → CCj (unless C=r)
  • i → e /_%a, o
  • u → o /_%a, o
  • oː → uː /_#


Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Slavic

Hwhatting
(Not in chronological order)

  • bʱ, dʱ, ɡʱ, ɡʲʱ, ɡʷʱ → b, d, ɡ, ɡʷ
  • kʷ, ɡʷ → k, ɡ
  • kʲ, ɡʲ → s, z
  • s → x /i, u, r, k_
  • k, ɡ, x → ʧ, ʒ, ʃ /_e(ː), i(ː), e(ː)i
  • a, o, ə → e /j_
  • a, o, ə → o
  • i → ɪ̆
  • u → ʌ
  • aː, oː → a
  • eː → æː
  • iː → i
  • uː → ɨ
  • u → ɪ̆ /j_
  • ei, eːi → i
  • ai, oi → i /j_
  • ai, oi → æː
  • aːi, oːi → æː (sometimes → a)
  • a(ː)u, o(ː)u → u
  • e(ː)u → ju
  • e → ɪ̆ /_jV
  • e → o /_wV
  • w → v
  • l̩ → ɪ̆l~ʌl
  • r̩ → ɪ̆r~ʌr
  • m̩, n̩ → ẽ~õ /_C$
  • m̩ → ɪ̆m~ʌm
  • n̩ → ɪ̆n~ʌn
  • æː → a /After palatal fricatives and affricates
  • e(ː), i(ː) → ẽ /_N$
  • a(ː), o(ː), u(ː) → õ /_N$
  • o → ʌ /Sometimes in final syllables
  • oi → i /Sometimes in final syllables
  • O → Ø /_$
  • N → Ø /_$
  • k, ɡ, x → ʦ, ʣ, s /After some syllables with front vowels
  • k, ɡ, x → ʦ, ʣ, s /_æː, i
  • sj, zj → ʃ, ʒ
  • kj, ɡj, xj → ʧ, ʒ, ʃ


Proto-Slavic to Old Russian

Hwhatting
(Not in chronological order)

  • t, d → Ø /V_lV
  • or → oro /_$
  • ol → olo /_$
  • er → ere /_$
  • el → olo /_$
  • mj, pj, bj → mlʲ, plʲ, blʲ
  • tj, dj → ʧ, ʒ
  • kt, ɡd → ʧ, ʒ /_[PIE front vowel]
  • ẽ → ʲa
  • õ → u
  • je → o /#_ (sometimes V_)
  • j → Ø /#_u (sometimes V_u)
  • jɪ̆ → i
  • Ø → j /#_a


Uralic

Proto-Uralic to Mordvin

Brandrinn

  • ʧ → ʃ
  • ʦʲ → sʲ
  • j → Ø /_V[front]
  • w → Ø /_V[back]
  • ðʲ → lʲ → l
  • lʲ → l
  • nʲ → n
  • k → j /V[front]_V
  • k → v /V[back]_V
  • kː → k /V_V (?)
  • t → d /V_V
  • tː → t /V_V
  • kt → ft /V_V
  • p → v /V_V
  • pt → ft /V_V
  • sʲ → zʲ /V_V
  • s → z /V_V
  • ʃ → ʒ /V_V
  • ð → d
  • ŋ → j /V[front]_V (or sometimes → Ø ?)
  • ŋ → v /V[back]_V (or sometimes → Ø ?)
  • o → u
  • ɤ → o, u
  • u → o (sometimes → u)
  • e → i, e
  • i → e /everywhere but V[front]_
  • y → e (sometimes → o)
  • a → ɤ /non-initial syllables (unless first syllable had /u/)
  • æ → ə /non-initial syllables
  • ɤ → ɤ /non-initial syllables
  • e → ə /non-initial syllables


Afro-Asiatic

Proto-Semitic to Biblical Hebrew

Maknas
(From http://www.adath-shalom.ca/history_of_hebrew.htm and other sources)

  • θ → ʃ
  • θˁ → sˁ
  • ð → z
  • kˁ → q
  • ɬ → ʃ
  • ɬˁ → sˁ
  • x → ħ
  • ɣ → ʕ
  • /w/ and /j/ underwent some mergers and drops as well, but I'm not sure of the rules. /h/ also was frequently dropped. Some of these distinctions were probably still maintained in early Biblical Hebrew in speech, though not in writing, as is evidenced by how the letter ע was recorded in Greek sometimes as G (from /ɣ/) and sometimes as null (from /ʕ/).

Stressed vowel correspondences:

  • aː → aː /_#
  • aː → oː /elsewhere
  • iː → iːə /_h, ʕ, ħ
  • iː → eː /_#
  • iː → iː /elsewhere
  • uː → uːə /_h, ʕ, ħ
  • uː → uː /elsewhere
  • oː → oː
  • a → aː /_$
  • a → a (less commonly) or ɛ (less commonly)
  • i → eːə /_h, ʕ, ħ
  • i → e /_C$, _C# (in verbs)
  • i → a /_h$, ʕ$, ħ$, h#, ʕ#, ħ# (in verbs)
  • i → eː /elsewhere
  • u → oːə /_h, ʕ, ħ
  • u → o /_C$, _C# (in verbs)
  • u → a /_h$, ʕ$, ħ$, h#, ʕ#, ħ# (in verbs)
  • u → oː /elsewhere
  • aw → aːw
  • aj → eː /_$
  • aj → ɛː /_#
  • aj → aj /elsewhere

Unstressed vowel correspondences:

  • aː → aː
  • oː, uː → iː /_$%oː
  • oː, uː → uː /elsewhere
  • a → Ø /_#, _$%%(...)"
  • a → ə /_h, ʕ, ħ, ʔ or h, ʕ, ħ, ʔ_ (if an adjacent syllable has ə)
  • a → aː /_%"
  • a → i /_C$, _C#
  • a → Ø /elsewhere
  • i → i, Ø /_#, _$%%(...)"
  • i → ə /_h, ʕ, ħ, ʔ or h, ʕ, ħ, ʔ_ (if an adjacent syllable has a frontal allophone of ə)
  • i → a /_h, ʕ, ħ or h, ʕ, ħ_
  • i → eː /_%"
  • u → ə, Ø /_#, _$%%(...)"
  • u → ə /_h, ʕ, ħ, ʔ or h, ʕ, ħ, ʔ_ (if an adjacent syllable has a backed allophone of ə)
  • u → ɔ /_C$, _C#
  • u → u /_Cː
  • u → Ø /elsewhere
  • aw → oː
  • aj → eː
  • ə could be realized as an ultrashort [a], [e], or [o] depending on its surroundings

Other changes:

  • p → f /non-initial, non-geminate
  • b → v /non-initial, non-geminate
  • t → θ /non-initial, non-geminate
  • d → ð /non-initial, non-geminate
  • k → x /non-initial, non-geminate
  • ɡ → ɣ /non-initial, non-geminate
  • ʕ → Ø /_$, _#
  • j → Ø /ɛ, e, i_
  • at → aː /_# (in feminine noun endings)

And just for interest, here's an example of the evolution of a segolate nouns (a type of broken plural in Hebrew)

  • darku "path, way" → *darɛk (loss of case endings) → dɛrɛk → dɛrɛx
  • darkiːma "paths, ways" → *dərakiːm (loss of case endings) → drakim → draxim
  • darkiya "my path, my way" → darkiː → darki


Biblical Hebrew to Modern Israeli Hebrew

Maknas
(From http://www.adath-shalom.ca/history_of_hebrew.htm and other sources)

Mind you, these aren't all true sound changes per se, since Modern Israeli Hebrew was artificially revived and is an amalgamation of dialects.

  • a(ː) → a
  • e(ː), ɛ → ɛ
  • i(ː) → i
  • o(ː) → o
  • u(ː) → u
  • ə → Ø (see note), ɛ (elsewhere); realizations such as [a] become /a/, never dropping
  • w → v
  • θ → t
  • ð → d
  • x → χ
  • ɣ → ɡ
  • ʕ → ʔ
  • sˁ → ʦ
  • ħ → χ
  • tˁ → t
  • q → k
  • h → Ø (word-finally)
  • ʔ → Ø (everywhere except in onset of stressed syllable - colloquial)
  • h → Ø (colloquial)
  • In addition, all geminate consonants simplified (making the former contrast of things such as /p/ [f], /p:/ [p] phonemic as a /p/~/f/ contrast).
  • Also, the historical r (probably a trill [r]) became a uvular approximant /ʁ/.

Schwa note: The schwa was dropped everywhere where it would not be awkward to do so. In other words, virtually anywhere except between clusters such as initial nasal + C (məðabːer "I/you/he speaks" → mɛdabɛʁ), or when the schwa was already being realized as [a] or [e] (in the presence of gutteral consonants). Also, Hebrew does not allow clusters of three or more consonants, so if there were two schwas in a row, the first dropped and the second vocalized: tiːləməðiː "you will learn (f)" → tilmɛdi.


Algonquian

Proto-Algonquian had the consonants */p t ʧ k θ s ʃ h m n r w j/ and the vowels */i iː e eː o oː a aː/.


Proto-Algonquian to Blackfoot

Whimemsz
(from Proulx, Paul (1989). "A Sketch of Blackfoot Historical Phonology." International Journal of American Linguistics 55:43-82)

"$" here represents a stem boundary, rather than a syllable boundary. I'm not sure about the order of all of these changes, nor am I positive that I understood all of them correctly.

  • ʧ, r, θ, ʃ → t/!C_, !_C (that is, not in clusters)
  • s → xs /!C_, !_C, !#_ (that is, not in clusters and not initially)
  • j → s /!C_
  • h → Ø /_C!
  • ʧ, ʃ → s /#_
  • ʔr, ʔθ → ʔ or j or Ø (apparently in free variation)
  • nr → s
  • h → x /_p, k
  • hkw → ʔk
  • hθ → sːt
  • hs → sː
  • mp → ʔp
  • nkw → ʔʔ
  • nt → xt
  • nʧ → ʔt
  • ns → x or s (both attested)
  • sp → xp
  • sk → x or sː (both attested)
  • ʧp → ʔp
  • ʃp → sːp
  • ʃk → xk
  • θp → x or sː (both attested)
  • x → sː /i_, #e_, ja_, ke_, /e(ː)_s
  • Ø → s /i(ː)_t, #e_t
  • t → ts /_i, _e(ː), _a
  • k → ks /_i(ː)
  • sːː → sː
  • aː → aa /W_ (but does not apply _CC, _Cː, or _#)
  • aː → a /elsewhere
  • oː → o
  • o → o
  • a → i /!#_, !_# (that is, everywhere except word boundaries)
  • a → a /#_, _#
  • e → a /_#
  • e, eː, i, iː → i

More specific vowel and consonant changes occurring only in certain phonetic environments (these changes evidently take place instead of the normal developments above--I think), listed in the order in which they occurred:

  • e → i /#_, k_
  • a, e, i → o /_kw
  • i → ji /oːw_#
  • i → ji /iːj_#
  • w → j /r_i#
  • w → j /k_i#
  • rw → riw
  • w → Ø /C_
  • ji(ː), ja → i /C_C
  • owaː, awa, awe → oː /C_C
  • awi → o(ji) /C_C
  • iːwa, eːwa, aje, aji, ani → iː /C_C
  • ahi → i /C_C
  • aːhi → aː /C_C
  • j → ij /#C_, C_V#
  • aw → ow
  • eLwi → iː (I don't know what the <L> stands for)
  • i(ː)wi → iː /medially
  • i(ː)wi → i /_#
  • j → s /elsewhere (already mentioned)
  • w → j /_i
  • ij, j, iː → j /C_B
  • iji → iː
  • owi → oi /_C
  • oni → ui /_C
  • awi → ai /_C
  • tem → mː (including *t from earlier *θ)
  • ken → nː
  • pen → nː
  • ket → tː (or → sː [?])
  • ke(h)? → tː
  • kes → sː
  • kwes → sː
  • keθ → sː
  • e → Ø /O_ in the first syllable (not entirely regular)
  • me, ne → Ø /#_O (followed by truncation of following x)
  • we, wiː → o /#_
  • j → j /#V_
  • tsi → Ø /$_OO (before a prefix; the first obstruent of the follow cluster then becomes ʔ)


Proto-Algonquian to Cheyenne

Jeff Burke
(Incomplete)

  • All clusters involving */k/ → ʔ
  • In nasal + non-nasal clusters, the nasal survived; in nasal+nasal clusters, */m/ dropped out
  • In semivowel + nasal clusters, the nasal survived
  • In */p/ clusters, the */p/ either dropped out or changed to a /t/
  • In */t/ + semivowel clusters, the /t/ survived
  • a → o
  • o → ɪ
  • i → ɪ
  • e → a
  • t → ʰt
  • r → t
  • θ → t
  • tr → t (?)
  • p → ʰp (in a few cases; mostly, it dropped out)
  • k → ʰk (in a few cases; mostly, it dropped out)
  • ʃ → s
  • j → t or e (?)
  • w → v or o
  • ʃ → ʃ or x
  • s → h
  • Vowel length → high tone


Proto-Algonquian to Proto-Arapaho-Atsina

Whimemsz
(From Goddard, Ives (1974) "An Outline of the Historical Phonology of Arapaho and Atsina." International Journal of American Linguistics 40:102-16)

  • (W)V → Ø /_# (That is, final vowels are lost, along with a preceding semivowel, if there is one)
  • we → o
  • o(ː) → i(ː)
  • W → Ø /C_i(ː)
  • e → i /#_
  • θ → ʃ /C_, _C
  • h → Ø /_C
  • s, m, n, r → ʔ /_C
  • ʧ → ʃ /_p
  • W → j /C_
  • W → n /#_, V_
  • k → Ø
  • p → k
  • s → n /#_
  • s → h /V_, C_
  • r → n /#_, V_
  • r → h /C_
  • ʧ → θ
  • V[long] → V[short] /_CC
  • a(ː) → o(ː)


Proto-Arapaho-Atsina to Arapaho

Whimemsz
(From Goddard (1974) An Outline of the Historical Phonology of Arapaho and Atsina)

  • ʔh → hʔ
  • (V)ʔ → (Vː)Ø /_C (If a preceding vowel existed, it only lengthened as long as it was itself not directly preceded by a vowel)
  • i(ː) → u(ː) /o(ː)(C)(C)_ (That is, when the preceding syllable contains *o or *ō -- but only if the intervening consonant(s) isn't (aren't) dental)
  • Ø → ʔ /CV[short]_#
  • ʃ, m → x, w /_B, B_#
  • ʃ, m → x, b /o(ː)_e(ː)
  • ʃ, k, m → s, ʧ, b /_E, j
  • ʃ, k, m → s, ʧ, b /E_#
  • (V[short])N → Ø /_#
  • Ø → h /#_V
  • eː → ei /j_
  • o(ː) → e(ː) /Cj_ (sometimes)
  • n → Ø /_j
  • j → Ø /C_
  • h → Ø /_#


Proto-Arapaho-Atsina to Gros Ventre

Whimemsz
(From Goddard (1974) An Outline of the Historical Phonology of Arapaho and Atsina)

  • ʔh → hʔ
  • (V[short])ʔ → (V[long; falling tone])Ø /_C (If a preceding vowel existed, it only lengthened as long as it was itself not directly preceded by a vowel)
  • j → Ø /ʃ, θ_
  • i → u /o(ː)_
  • ʃ, θ, m → θ, t, w /_o(ː)
  • ʃ, θ, m, k → θ, t, b, ʧ /_e(ː)
  • ʃ, θ, m, t, k → s, ʦ, tʲ, ʦ, bʲ /_i(ː), _j, _#
  • (V[short])N → Ø /_#
  • Ø → ʔ /#__V
  • n → Ø /__j


Proto-Algonquian to Ojibwe

To do


Uto-Aztecan

For Uto-Aztecan changes, the following should be noted. All of the Uto-Aztecan changes are from Radius Solis, taken from: Voegelin, Charles F., Voegelin, Florence M., & Hale, Kenneth L. (1962) "Typological and Comparative Grammar of Uto-Aztecan: I (Phonology)". International Journal of American Linguistics 28: Memoir 17. This paper was a goldmine of information compared to what's out there on the net, but unfortunately is far from complete even so. For one thing, for some languages it doesn't bother giving the conditions for the changes, just what the various reflexes are of the Proto-UA segments, and when conditions are given, they're often full of holes. Please take these as incomplete (but covering most of the known important stuff), and also somewhat out of date given that the journal article was from 45 years ago.

In addition, the time depth for Proto-Uto-Aztecan is roughly comparable to that of PIE, and so quite often there's a problem of languges having insufficient remaining cognates to be sure of all their sound changes. I've marked the worst such cases below.

At the time when the source paper was written, reconstructed PUA (Proto-Uto-Aztecan) was seen as having three sets of vowels, labeled "suspending", "unaltering", and "nasalizing". The nasalizing vowels likely were actually nasal, but it's uncertain; their existence was deduced only by the sound changes that revolved around them. There's few good guesses yet about the nature of the "suspending" vowels, but their existence is likewise deducible from the sound changes that have been affected by them across a majority of the UA family - more changes than from the nasalizing series, occurring in all UA branches, enough to be pretty certain that it was a reality in PUA.

Vu = unaffecting (normal) vowels
Vs = suspending vowels, most often having the effect of leniting or deleting (i.e. "suspending") any following stops, in the changes they caused; the most frequently affected sound was */p/, which lenited or deleted after suspending vowels in all five of the languages shown on this page, and a majority of the UA family.
Vn = nasalizing vowels, named for their nasalizing effect in some UA languages but which aren't seen in any of the ones on this page.

The phonology of Proto-Uto-Aztecan was in 1962 reconstructed as */p t ʦ k kʷ ʔ s h m n ŋ r l w j/, with vowels */i ɨ u o a/ (in the changes below, "low" refers to */o/ and */a/ and "high" refers to the remaining vowels).


Proto-Uto-Aztecan to Nahuatl

  • t → tɬ /_a, u
  • p → Ø /#_
  • p → Ø /Vs_
  • ts → ʧ /_i
  • s → ʃ /_i
  • ʔ → Ø
  • h → Ø
  • ŋ → n
  • m → n /_#
  • l → n /#_
  • w → Ø /_o
  • ɨ → e
  • u → i or e (all */u/ affected, but conditions for when it became /i/ or /e/ are not known)
  • (What happened to PUA */r/ is not known. Nahuatl has no cognates that would have a reflex.)


Proto-Uto-Aztecan to Tohono O'odham

  • p → w /#_
  • p → w /Vs_
  • t → ʧ /_V[high]
  • ʦ → s /_i
  • kʷ → b
  • h → ʔ /#_
  • h → Ø /medially
  • s → h
  • ŋ → n
  • n → ɲ /_V[high]
  • l → ɲ /#_ (in doubt; initial *l occurs in too few cognates to be sure. Apparently PUA intial *l was rare and is of questionable certainty whether it existed at all.)
  • l → ɭ (retroflex l)
  • ɭ → ɖ /_a
  • w → ɡ
  • j → ʤ /_V[high]
  • j → d /_V[low]
  • V → Ø /when in the first syllable of a bisyllabic morpheme, if after a morpheme boundary in the same word (all other first-syllable vowels have non-zero reflexes)
  • All vowels except */i/ (see below) remain finally if after */s h ʔ/ and are otherwise lost in final position
  • i → Ø /ʦ_#
  • i → i /_# after */p m w k kʷ/ in all dialects, and varies by dialect after other consonants.
  • What happened to PUA */r/ in O'odham is difficult to say. There are only two known cognates, each showing a different reflex: /ɭ/ and /ɖ/


Proto-Uto-Aztecan to Luiseño

  • p → v / Vs_
  • p → v /ɨ_ (sometimes; other conditions not known)
  • t → l /medially
  • ʦ → ʧ
  • k → q /#_V[low]
  • k → q /an_
  • isolated other instances of k → q occur with uncertain conditions
  • k → x /a_
  • ʔ → Ø /#_
  • s → ʃ
  • l → n /medially (initial *l unattested in Luiseño - see note in O'odham section)
  • o → e
  • ɨ → o
  • V → Ø /in some final syllables (conditions are unknown and it varies by dialect)


Proto-Uto-Aztecan to Hopi

  • p → v /Vs_
  • k → q /_V[low]
  • i → j /after medial *h
  • h → Ø /medially
  • l → l (no change) /#_ (highly unsure, only one cognate has initial */l/)
  • l → n /medially
  • w → l /#_V[low] and V[low]_V[low]
  • w → ŋʷ /ɨn_
  • o → ø
  • u → o


Proto-Uto-Aztecan to Comanche

  • p > v /Vs_
  • t > r /Vs_
  • ʦ > Ø /Vs_
  • k > hk /Vu_
  • s > h /Vs_
  • s > Ø /Vn_
  • ŋ > n
  • l > n
  • w > Ø /medially
  • j > Ø /medially


Quechuan

Proto-Quechua to Ayacucho

Mark Rosenfelder

  • tʂ → ʧ (Rosenfelder wrote <ç> for what is evidently reconstructed by Cerrón-Palomino as */tʂ/)
  • ʧ → s
  • q → χ


Proto-Quechua to Cuzco

Mark Rosenfelder

  • ʧ → ʧʹ (about half of the time)
  • tʂ → ʧ
  • ʃ → s
  • m → n /_C[+dental]
  • m → n /_C[+velar]
  • p → ɸ /_S
  • t, tʂ, ʧ → s /_C
  • k → x /_C
  • q → χ /_C
  • ʎ → l /_q
  • Ø → h /#_V
  • ɲ → n (rare)
  • k → h /V_V (very rare)
  • q → h /V_V (very rare)
  • w → j /_$ (rare)


Proto-Quechua to Cajamarca

Mark Rosenfelder

  • tʂ → tr
  • h → Ø /#_
  • q → k
  • ʎ → ʒ /V_V


Proto-Quechua to Junín

Mark Rosenfelder

  • tʂ → tr
  • r → l
  • q → Ø /#_
  • q → ʔ
  • s → h /#_ (sometimes; over half of the time when #_a)


Proto-Quechua to Ancash (Huaraz)

Mark Rosenfelder

  • tʂ → ʧ
  • ʧ → ʦ (sometimes; over half of the time when #_)
  • s → h /#_ (about half of the time)
  • s → Ø /[+labial]_V
  • s → j /V_i, i_V
  • s → w /u_V
  • s → h /V_V
  • ɲ → n /#_
  • ʎ → l (occasionally)
  • aj → eː
  • uj → iː
  • aw → oː
  • q → χ /V_[-voiced]
  • q → ɢ /*_[+voiced]


Northern Athabaskan

These are compiled by Whimemsz, from Michael Krauss and Victor Golla (1981) "Northern Athapaskan Languages", pp. 67-85 of Handbook of North American Indians vol. 6 (Subarctic). They do not represent all the changes in the various Northern Athabaskan languages. Rather, they seem to be the most important ones, and tend to be chosen from the types of sound changes considered by Krauss and Golla to be the most central to and common in Northern Athabaskan languages (vowel changes, tone developments, changes involving the Proto-Athabaskan affricate and prevelar/uvular stop series).

So, the phonology of Proto-Athabaksan (PA) distinguished plain, aspirated, and glottalized stops/affricates and voiceless and voiced fricatives, at several points of articulation, or better, "series": dental stop, dental affricate or fricative, lateral, palatal, labialized palatal, (front) velar, uvular/postvelar, labialized uvular/labialized postvelar, and glottal ("laryngeal"). There were also several sonorants. The consonant system of PA (arranged somewhat differently from Krauss & Golla's presentation) can be seen on the Wikipedia page. The sonorants as reconstructed by Krauss & Golla, however, are */n w w̃ j j̃/ (X-SAMPA */n w w~ j j~/; they do say that */w~ j~/ may have been */m/ and */ɲ/ or */ŋ/, respectively). The two nasal sonorants will be transcribed as "m" and "ɲ" here.

The way K&G present the consonant system is kind of important for how they present the sound changes. As I said, they break the obstruents down into seven series:

1) Dental stops : *t, *tʰ, *t’
2) Lateral : *tɬ, *tɬʰ, *tɬ’, *ɬ, *l
3) Dental affricates/fricatives : *ʦ, *ʦʰ, *ʦ’, *s, *z
4) Palatal : *ʧ, *ʧʰ, *ʧ’, *ʃ, *ʒ
5) Labialized palatal : *ʧʷ, *ʧʷʰ, *ʧ’ʷ, *ʃʷ, *ʒʷ
6) (Front) velar : *kʲ, *kʲʰ, *kʲ’, *xʲ, *ɣʲ
7) Uvular : *q, *qʰ, *q’, *χ, *ʁ
8) Labialized uvular : *qʷ, *qʷʰ, *q’ʷ, *χʷ, *ʁʷ
9) Glottal : *ʔ, *h

Series (5) is reconstructed by some as a retroflex series: *tʂ, *tʂʰ, etc.; from now on, series (6) will be written plain: *k, *kʰ, etc.

All members of the same series generally undergo the same changes/mergers/etc. So the changes are abbreviated by using the plain/voiceless member of each series to stand for the entire series. So the nine series are abbreviated using:

1) *t
2) *tɬ
3) *ʦ
4) *ʧ
5) *ʧʷ
6) *k
7) *q
8) *qʷ
9) (I'm not sure about this)

There's an additional series present in some of the daughter languages, consisting of dentals (or interdentals?): tθ, tθʰ, tθ’, θ, ð. This series is abbreviated with tθ. Additionally, in a few languages there is a retroflex(?) series, abbreviated with tʂ.

Vowels could be plain, or have "glottal constriction" (symbolized with V’). There were two grades or kinds of vowels: "full"/long (*i, *e, *u, *a) and "reduced"/short (written *α, *ə, and *ʋ). *α was the reduced version of *a, *ʋ the reduced version of *u, and *ə the reduced version of both *i and *e.

Another thing to keep in mind is that K&G write the PA plain stops/affricates as if they were voiced (d, g, etc.) and the aspirated ones as if they were voiceless (t, k, etc.), so in some cases in the daughter language forms cited I'm unsure whether a "d" represents [d], or [t], or if a "t" represents [t] or [tʰ]. In those cases I've gone with the plain voiceless, and aspirated, respectively (and so on), except in cases where the sound in question descends from a nasal, where I treat "ⁿd", "d", etc. as [ⁿd] and [d], etc.

In the changes, notations like *ʦ can be assumed to stand for the entire obstruent series unless I note otherwise. Changes in obstruents can be assumed to refer only to stem-initial obstruents unless otherwise indicated. ’ = glottalization/constriction, and L = sonorants (not liquids).


Proto-Athabaskan to Ahtna

  • ʦ, ʧ, ʧʷ → ʦ
  • k → k (→ ʧ in the Mentasta dialect)
  • q → q
  • s, ʃ, ʃʷ, x (individual sounds, not series) → s
  • i → i, iː
  • e → e, eː
  • a → a, aː
  • u → u, uː
  • α → a
  • ə → e
  • ʋ → o
  • C’ → unchanged /stem-finally
  • V’ → V [vowel constriction lost]
  • No tone


Proto-Athabaskan to Dena'ina

  • ʧ, ʧʷ → ʧ (→ ʦ in the Upper Inlet dialect)
  • i, u → i ([ɪ])
  • e → a
  • a → u ([ʊ])
  • α, ə, ʋ → ə
  • s, ʃ, ʃʷ, x (individual sounds, not series) → s
  • z, ʒ, ʒʷ, ɣ (individual sounds, not series) → j
  • k → k
  • q → q
  • C’ → unchanged /stem-finally
  • V’ → V
  • No tone


Proto-Athabaskan to Deg Hit'an

  • ʦ → tθ
  • ʧ → ʦ
  • ʧʷ → tʂ (→ ʦ in the Kuskokwim dialect)
  • q → q
  • k → k or ʧ (apparently "for reasons not fully understood")
  • w → v (→ w in the Shageluk dialect)
  • m → m
  • ɲ → ŋ
  • L, F → [-voiced] /_# if suffixal (e.g., PA *ʧʷen, "day" > [tʂan̥])
  • Cə → C[+voiced +syllabic] /_# if suffixal (e.g., PA *ɬuq’ə, "fish" > [ɬɛːɢ̩])
  • i, u → i ([ɪ])
  • e → a
  • a → u ([ʊ])
  • α, ə, ʋ → ə
  • C’ → C /stem-finally
  • V’ → V
  • No tone


Proto-Athabaskan to Koyukon

  • e → a ([æ])
  • a → o ([ɔ])
  • α → ŏ (this is the symbol K&G use--I'm not positive what it refers to)
  • ʋ → ŭ
  • ʦ → tɬ
  • ʧ, ʧʷ → ʦ
  • Some stem-final consonant suffixes in clusters are preserved (e.g., PA *kə’s-ɬ "fishhook" → /kiɬtɬʰ/; PA *ʧ’ʷə-ɣə-ʔα’ʃ-ɬ, "we walk along" → /ʦ’oʔŏstɬʰ/; PA *jə-ɬ-ʔαʃ-x, "he sneezes" → /jiɬŏskʰ/) (in the Minchumina-Bearpaw subdialect of the Upper Koyukon dialect, the clusters are not preserved)
  • k → k (→ ʧ in the Upper Koyukon dialect)
  • q → q
  • C’ → C /stem-finally
  • V’ → V[low tone] (tone subsequently lost in all dialects but Lower Koyukon)
  • w → m /_Vn (sometimes)
  • w → b (→ m in Lower Koyukon)
  • ə → Ø /L_#, F_# (when suffixal) (Lower Koyukon only) [I'm not sure if I'm reading their description of this change correctly]


Proto-Athabaskan to Holikachuk

Phonologically quite similar to Koyukon (specifically Lower Koyukon), to the extent that the two are partially mutually-intelligible. K&G only list the differences between Holikachuk and Lower Koyukon:

  • ʦ → tθ (rather than → tɬ)
  • e → a /prefixal

The vowels seem to be somewhat different, however, though K&G don't mention this in the text (only show it in a table of vowel developments):

  • i → e
  • e → a
  • a → ɔ
  • u → o
  • α, ʋ → ŭ


Proto-Athabaskan to Kolchan (Upper Kuskokwim)

  • ʧ → ʦ
  • ʧʷ → tʂ
  • k → ʧ
  • q → k
  • e → a ([æ])
  • a → o
  • α, ʋ → ŭ
  • C’ → C’ /stem-finally (sometimes)
  • V’ → V
  • No tone


Proto-Athabaskan to Lower Tanana

  • ʦ → tθ
  • ʧ → ʦ
  • ʧʷ → tʂ
  • k → ʧ (but → k stem-finally)
  • q → k
  • S’ → S /stem-finally
  • V’ → V[low tone] (since then partially neutralized in noun and verb stems, but "still clear in verbal prefixes")
  • e → æ
  • a → ɔ
  • α, ʋ → ŭ


Proto-Athabaskan to Tanacross

K&G define the changes to Tanacross by the features that distinguish it from Upper Tanana:

  • V’ → V[high tone] (not low tone)
  • Development of length contrast in full vowels
  • n, ɲ → ⁿd
  • Vɲ → V[nasalized]j
  • j → ʒ
  • Voiced stem-initial fricatives devoiced (*l, *z, *ʒ, *ʒʷ, *ɣ, *ʁ, *ʁʷ → ɬ, s, ʃ, ʃʷ, x, χ, χʷ), though apparently they remain distinctively lenis
  • 1sg subject prefix *-ʃ- → -h-
  • Classifier *-ɬ- → -h-

The vowel developments to Tanacross were also somewhat different:

  • e → e ([ɪ])
  • α → æ̆ or ă
  • ə → æ̆
  • ʋ → ŏ


Proto-Athabaskan to Upper Tanana

Upper Tanana is apparently quite similar to Tanacross, with the main difference being the loss of many stem-final fricatives and affricates (sometimes with compensatory diphthongization). For example, PA *t’e’ʃʷ "charcoal" → Lower Tanana t’æ̀ʂ, Tanacross t’eːs, but Upper Tanana t’ea.

The vowel system is significantly different as well (apparently, vowels also develop a length distinction):

  • i → i or ea
  • e → e or ea
  • a → a or ɨ
  • u → u or iu
  • α → a or ɨ
  • ə → a or ɨ (but → ë in the Northway dialect, though I'm not sure what that represents)
  • ʋ → o
  • V’ → V[low tone] (subsequently lost among young speakers by 1980)


Proto-Athabaskan to Han

  • ʦ → tθ
  • ʧ → ʦ
  • ʧʷ → tʂ
  • k → ʧ
  • q → k
  • In some cases, members of some series (especially the *t, *tɬ, and *tθ series) palatalize before high vowels.
  • n → ⁿd (or → d) /_V[non-nasal], when stem-initial
  • j → ʒ /stem-initially
  • a → æ
  • α → a
  • ə → ə or ë
  • ʋ → o
  • Vowel length develops
  • V’ → V[low tone]

There is an enormous reduction of stem-final consonants, with the only permitted stem-final consonants allowed in modern Han being /t k w j r n h ʔ/ (and also /l/, in the Dawson dialect). For example, PA *təɬ, "blood" → /taw/ (Eagle dialect) or /tal/ (Dawson dialect); PA *-ʧ’ʋʧ’, "elbow" → -/ʦ’àh/.


Proto-Athabaskan to Gwich'in

  • ʦ → tθ or, if palatalized, → ʧ (Eastern Gwich'in) or k (Western Gwich'in)
  • ʧ → ʦ
  • ʧʷ → tʂ
  • k → ʧ or, if palatalized, → ʦ̱ (Eastern Gwich'in--a sound between [ʦ] and [ʧ]) or ʦ (Western Gwich'in)
  • q → k

Some examples of the palatalizing of some of the series (which evidently happened before front vowels?) in different dialects: PA *ʦʰe "stone" → Eastern [ʧʰiː] / Western [kʰiː]; PA *-kʰeʔ "tail" → Eastern -[ʦ̱ʰìʔ] / Western -[ʦʰìʔ].

  • w → v
  • j → ʒ
  • n, ɲ → ⁿd ~ ⁿʤ (if palatalized) /__V[non-nasal] (e.g., PA *təne "person" → /tiⁿʤiː/)
  • i, e → i ("but diphthongized to ia with the loss of certain stem-finals")
  • a → i or e
  • u → iu
  • α, ə → a
  • ʋ → o
  • V’ → V[low tone]
  • An "extensive reduction" of stem-final consonants; however, reflexes of final *-ɲ and *-n after PA *a and *e are kept distinct (e.g., PA *-tʰan "handle stick (perfective stem)" → -/tʰin/; PA *-ʔaɲ "handle small object (perfective stem)" → -/ʔãĩ/).


Proto-Athabaskan to Tutchone

  • ʦ → tθ
  • ʧ, ʧʷ → ʦ
  • k → ʧ (however, the sound /x/ remains a (fronted) velar, "at least in some dialects")
  • q → k
  • e → e (Southern Tutchone) or i (Northern Tutchone)
  • a → a (Southern Tutchone) or e (Northern Tutchone)
  • α, ə, ʋ → a or o
  • "Drastic" reduction of stem-final obstruents, with most consonants being lost (but in Northern Tutchone reflexes of stem-final *-ʧ and *-ʧʷ are distinct: PA *weʃʷ "knife" → /mbrà/; PA *ɬe’ʧʰ "dust" → /ɬjóʔ/)
  • V’ → V[high tone] (Northern Tutchone) or V[low tone] (Southern Tutchone)
  • Nasalized vowels and diphthongs develop
  • A "secondary vowel" develops (o in Northern Tutchone and ɨ in Southern Tutchone)
  • In Southern Tutchone only, "affricates and fricatives merge" (so *ʦ, *z → ð; *ʦʰ, *s → θ, etc.).


Proto-Athabaskan to Slavey-Hare and Dogrib

I'm going to treat each of the four main Slavey-Hare dialects (Slavey, Bearlake, Mountain, and Hare) separately, since they're fairly distinct (since K&G tread Dogrib with Slavey-Hare, I'm including it here as well).

A change common to all the dialects and Dogrib is a huge reduction of stem-final consonants. According to K&G, "In Slavey-Hare a few final consonants occur as underlying segments, preserved before suffixes but neutralized to -h or -ʔ in word-final position. In Dogrib, only -h occurs as a stem-final consonant in any environment." Also common to all are the vowel developments (for the most part): *α → a; *ə → e (→ ɛ in Bearlake); *ʋ → o.


Slavey (dialect of Slavey-Hare)

  • ʦ → tθ
  • ʧ, ʧʷ → ʦ
  • k → ʧ
  • q → k


Bearlake (dialect of Slavey-Hare)

  • ʧ, ʧʷ → ʦ
  • k → ʧ
  • q → k

The dental series (*ʦ) changes to a labial one, with the changes (sounds now, not series!):

  • ʦ → kʷ
  • ʦʰ → kʷʰ
  • ʦ’ → kʷ’
  • s → ʍ
  • z → w


Mountain (dialect of Slavey-Hare)

  • ʧ, ʧʷ → ʦ
  • k → ʧ
  • q → k

The dental series (*ʦ) changes to a labial one, with the changes (sounds now, not series!):

  • ʦ → p
  • ʦʰ → pʰ
  • ʦ’ → p’
  • s → f
  • z → v


Dogrib (grouped with Slavey-Hare)

  • ʧ, ʧʷ → ʦ
  • k → ʧ
  • q → k
  • u → i

The dental series (*ʦ) changes to a labial one, with the changes (sounds now, not series!):

  • ʦ → kʷ
  • ʦʰ → kʷʰ
  • ʦ’ → kʷ’
  • s → ʍ
  • z → w


Hare (dialect of Slavey-Hare)

  • ʧ, ʧʷ → ʦ (exceptions: see below)
  • k → ʧ (exceptions: see below)
  • q → k
  • e → ie
  • ɬ, l → l

The dental series (*ʦ) changes to a labial one, with the changes (sounds now, not series!):

  • ʦ → kʷ or p
  • ʦʰ → f
  • ʦ’ → w’
  • s → w
  • z → w

More changes involving sounds, rather than series, and which deal with aspirates merging with fricatives (these are the "exceptions" mentioned above):

  • tɬʰ → ɬ
  • ʧʰ, ʧʷʰ → s
  • kʰ → ʃ


Proto-Athabaskan to Chipewyan

  • ʦ → tθ
  • ʧ, ʧʷ → ʦ
  • k → ʧ
  • q → k
  • t (sound, not series) → k (in some communities)
  • A, O’ → F /stem-finally
  • α → a
  • ʋ → o
  • V’ → V[high tone]


Proto-Athabaskan to Beaver

  • ʦ → tθ (further → ʦ in most communities)
  • ʧ, ʧʷ → ʦ
  • k → ʧ
  • q → k
  • t → ʧ /_*i, *e, *u (in British Columbian Beaver) (e.g., PA *tʰu "water" → Doig Beaver /ʧʰu/)
  • n, ɲ → d (further → ʤ in British Columbia Beaver) /_V[non-nasal], if stem-initial (e.g., PA *nu "island" → Boyer River Beaver /du/, Doig Beaver /ʤu/)
  • α, ə → ə
  • ʋ → ʊ
  • V’ → V[high tone]
  • More retention of stem-final consonants than in Chipewyan ("some final affricates being retained as such")


Proto-Athabaskan to Sekani

  • ʦ → tθ (further → ʦ in some communities)
  • ʧ, ʧʷ → ʦ
  • k → ʧ
  • q → k
  • t → ʧ /_*i, *e, *u (in Fort Grahame Sekani and Fort McLeod Sekani, but not Ware Sekani)
  • α → ɑ(?) (not enough data on Sekani for this to be certain)
  • ʋ → o
  • V’ → V[high tone]


Proto-Athabaskan to Tahltan-Kaska-Tagish

  • α → a
  • ə → i or e
  • ʋ → u
  • Stem-final consonants mostly preserved (but stem-final glottalization lost)
  • V’ → V[low tone] (Tahltan and Tagish) or → V[high tone] (Kaska)

There are various developments of the obstruent series in various dialects (though the change *q → k is common to all of them):

Kaska

  • ʦ → tθ
  • ʧ, ʧʷ → ʦ
  • k → ʧ (however, the sound /x/ remains a (fronted) velar, "at least in some dialects")

Tagish

  • ʦ, ʧ, ʧʷ → ʦ
  • k > ʦʲ

Tahtlan

  • ʦ > ʦ
  • ʧ, ʧʷ, k → ʧ (however, the sound /x/ remains a (fronted) velar, "at least in some dialects")


Proto-Athabaskan to Tsetsaut

There is little good material on Tsetsaut, so not all the correspondences are clear.

  • ʧ → ʦ
  • ʧʷ → pf
  • k → ʧ
  • q → k
  • "Severe loss of stem-final consonants"
  • α → ɑ(?) (not enough data on Tsetsaut for this to be certain)
  • ʋ → o


Proto-Athabaskan to Dakelh and Babine

  • ʦ, ʧ, ʧʷ → ʦ
  • k → ʧ (Dakelh (and some dialects of Babine?)) or k (in Babine, or at least the Bulkley River dialect)
  • q → k (Dakelh (and some dialects of Babine?)) or q (in Babine, or at least the Bulkley River dialect)
  • e → i, e (Babine) or e (Dakelh)
  • a → a, e (Babine) or a (Dakelh)
  • u → o, u
  • α, ə → ə
  • ʋ → ə (Babine) or u (Dakelh)
  • V’ → V

Apparently the changes in the vowel system were brought about through "consonantal conditioning".


Proto-Athabaskan to Chilcotin

  • ʦ → ʦ̂ (a "flattening" [ʦ], which causes neighboring vowels to be pharyngealized or articulated with a retracted tongue, e.g., Chilcotin /ʦ’i/ "canoe" = [ʦ’i], but /ʦ̂ʰi/ "stone" = [ʦʰəi] (presumably from PA *ʦʰe "stone", as given earlier))
  • ʧ, ʧʷ → ʦ (non-flattening)
  • k → ʧ
  • q → q (flattening) or k (nonflattening) (split under various conditions--in such a way that the sounds /k k’ qʰ χ ʁ/ are common, and /q q’ kʰ x/ are rare)
  • e → i
  • α, ə → e or ɪ
  • ʋ → ʊ
  • V’ → V[high tone]


Proto-Athabaskan to Sarcee

  • ʦ, ʧ, ʧʷ → ʦ
  • k → ʧ
  • q → k
  • e, α, ə → ɑ
  • ʋ → u
  • V’ → V[low tone] (but, V[high tone] → V[mid tone] if the vowel was unconstricted and historically "reduced" (rather than "full"))

Very conservative with stem-final consonants: affricates, glottalization ("at least before suffixes"), and some clusters retained

Austronesian

Polynesian to Hawai'ian

Chris Zoller
(From Trask, R. L. (1996) Historical Linguistics)
(Simplified)

  • h → Ø
  • ʔ → Ø
  • s → h
  • f → h
  • k → ʔ
  • t → k
  • ŋ → n
  • r → l
  • v → w


Sino-Tibetan

Old Mandarin to Modern Pekingese

Ran
(From Hsueh, F. S. (1975) Phonology of Old Mandarin)

  • ŋ → Ø /#_
  • e, o → a /_w
  • m → n /V_
  • o → e /_ŋ
  • e, o → a /_n
  • i → e /C_ʔ
  • ʔ → Ø
  • j → Ø /j + î_
  • #r...î# → #î...r#
  • v → Ø
  • j → Ø /[+retroflex]_
  • o → e /_#
  • î → e /_C# (except /r/)
  • j → Ø /C_w + e + ŋ
  • k, kʰ, h → ʨ, ʨʰ, ɕ /_j


Vowel shifts

Greek vowel shift

Chris Zoller
(From Trask, R. L. (1996) Historical Linguistics)

  • u → y
  • uː → yː
  • oː → uː
  • eː → iː
  • ɛː → eː
  • ai → ɛ
  • ɔi → yː
  • eː → iː
  • y → i
  • yː → iː
  • ɔː → ɔ
  • ɛu → ɛv
  • au → av


Old Norse to Faroese (vowels)

johanpeturdam

The reflexes of the vowels are given in the order of their reflex when stressed/long, and unstressed/short

  • a, æː → ɛa / a
  • aː → ɔa (except NE of the Faroes → aː) / ɔ
  • e → eː / ɛ
  • eː → ɛa (except Suðuroy → eː) / a (except Suðuroy → ɛ)
  • i, y → iː / ɪ
  • iː, yː → ʊi / ʊi, ʊ
  • o → oː / ɔ
  • oː → ɔu, ɛu, œu / œ (except Suðuroy → ɔ)
  • u → uː / short: ʊ / unstressed: o, ɔ
  • uː → ʉu / ʏ
  • œ, ɔ → øː / œ (except Suðuroy → ʏ)


Great Vowel Shift (English)

http://www.peak.org/~jeremy/dictionary/chapters/history.php

  • iː → əi̯ → ai̯
  • uː → əu̯ → au̯
  • eː → iː
  • oː → uː
  • ɛː → eː → iː
  • aː → ɛː → eː → ei̯
  • ɔː → oː → ou̯ (→ əu)

Links

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