From KneeQuickie

Falgwian ['fa:5.gwi:an] (Falgwian: Falgwie ['fa5.gwaI']) is a language spoken by approximately 940,000 people in Falgwia (and surrounding countries). It is a language isolate, with no known linguistic relatives or ancestors beyond Old Falgwian. The order is Verb-Subject-Object (VSO) and nouns are governed by the cases, nominative, accusative, dative, locative, and an argued genitive. It has the moods, infinitive, indicative, four subjunctives, potential optative, and imperative. And the tenses, present, habitual present, pretorite, aorist, and habitual past.

Contents 1 Grammar 1.1 Phonology 1.1.1 Consonants 1.1.2 Vowels 1.1.3 Alphabet 1.2 Pronouns 1.2.1 Nominative 1.2.2 A Special Note 1.2.3 Accusative 1.2.4 Dative 1.2.5 Locative 1.2.6 Genitive 1.2.7 Pronoun and Particle Supremacy 1.2.8 Relative Pronouns 1.3 Nouns 1.3.1 Accusative Case 1.3.2 Dative Case 1.3.2.1 Other Uses of the Dative 1.3.3 Locative Case 1.3.4 Genitive Case/Condition 1.3.5 Case Summary 1.3.6 Dual 1.3.7 Plural 1.3.8 Comparatives and Superlatives 1.4 Verbs 1.4.1 Infinitive 1.4.2 Present or Base Tense 1.4.3 Habitual Present Tense 1.4.4 Imperfect Tense 1.4.5 Pretorite Tense 1.4.6 Aorist Tense 1.4.7 Pretorite vs. Aorist 1.4.8 Habitual Past Tense 1.4.9 Verb Summary 1.4.10 Negative 1.4.11 Subjunctive 1.4.11.1 Horatory Subjunctive 1.4.11.2 Deliberative Subjunctive 1.4.11.3 Subordinate Subjunctive 1 1.4.11.4 Subordinate Subjunctive 2 1.4.12 Potential Optative 1.4.13 Imperative 1.4.14 Passive 1.4.15 Irregular Verbs 1.5 Adjectives 1.6 Adverbs 1.6.1 Adverbs of Location 1.7 Prepositions 1.8 Ko Particle 1.9 Other Particles 1.10 Demonstratives 1.11 Syntax 2 Numbers 3 Telling Time 4 Expressing Age 5 Writing A Letter 6 Patronymic Naming System in Falgwian 7 Common Phrases and Expressions

Grammar

Phonology

Consonants

	Bilabial	Labiodental	Alveolar	Velar	Uvular
Plosive			t d	k g
Nasal	m		n
Trill			r
Fricative		f	s		X
Labio				w
Lateral Approximates			l

-w stays as [w] in consonant clusters (except the exception with h below), and also word initially unless the following word ends in a vowel. Between vowels such as VCV, [w] allophones to [B]. [w] allophones to [b] in all situations that are CV (except where the preceding word ends in a vowel). This is due to lenition in Old Falgwian of /b/, as well as fortition of /w/ in non onset forms which allophoned to /B/.

-h is realised as [X] unless followed by w, where it allophones to [W]. h is also realised as /h/ in most pronouns, particles, and prepositions.

-l is realised as [l] initially and word medially as in CV.CV where C is [l].

-l is realised as [5] only if syllable final.

The basic syllabic structure of Falgwian is CV.CV, with occasional consonant clusters usually consisting of C+/w/.

There is final obstruent devoicing of [d] to [t] and [g] to [k] in unstressed final syllables.

Vowels

Falgwian Script	X-SAMPA	Example
i	/i/	dim ('because')
e	/E/	dem (subjunctive particle)
y	/1/	fwyt ('with')
a	/a/	wat ('I am')
o	/O/	nok ('if')
u	/u/	tu ('more')

Ai is /eI/.

Ie is /aI/.

- e is [e] in an open syllable (CV), [E] in a closed syllable (CVC), [3] before a rhotic (r) in a closed syllable, and [@] when unstressed word final.

- Ie was ei, but during Tetie's language reforms, he switched the letters around saying it looked "too German." It is seen as ei in literature dating before the 1950s.

-Stress is always on the first syllable in Falgwian.

Alphabet

A AI, D, E, IE, F, G, H, I, K, L, M, N, O, R, S, T, U, W, Y

The alphabet is pronounced as follows:

/a:/ /eI:/ /de:/ /e:/ /aI:/ /ef:/ /ge:/ /xa:/ /i:/ /ka:/ /e5/ /em/ /en/ /O/ /er/ /es/ /te:/ /u/ /be:/ /1:bsilOnaI/*

• Spelled Ywsilonie

Pronouns

Nominative

N.B. Pay close attention to the pronunciations.

First person:

	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	ha	hyha	hami

-Ha is pronounced /a/ in unstressed positions, and /ha/ in stressed positions. /Xa/ is almost nonexistent in speech.

Second person:

	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	nywi	nyhi	nami

-Nywi is usually pronounced /ni/ in unstressed positions.

Third person masculine:

	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	mi	myhi	mami

Third person feminine:

	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	li	lyhi	lami

Third person inanimate:

The nominative third person inanimate pronouns are not declined to the level of other pronouns of the third person. Also note, the third person inanimate is used to refer to a group of men and women.

	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	tiewi	tiehi	tiemi

-Tiewi is usually pronounced /taI/ in unstressed positions.

A Special Note

A special note on all third person inanimate pronouns of all cases. Only the -ai forms are still used, regardless of ending, they are bolded. For informational sake, all the forms are provided. They are frequentely seen in literature dating from before the 20th century. They are also heard in dialects in the countryside that haven't been much affected by the regularising of the language. NOTICE the inversion of ei to ie.

Accusative

The accusative pronouns are suffixed by a hyphen to the verb according to particle supremacy. The accusative also serves the purpose of the reflexive.

First person:

	Singular	Dual	Plural
Accusative	wa	wyha	wama

Second person:

	Singular	Dual	Plural
Accusative	na	nyha	nama

Third person masculine:

	Singular	Dual	Plural
Accusative	ma	myha	mama

Third person feminine:

	Singular	Dual	Plural
Accusative	la	lyha	lama

Third person inanimate:

	Singular		Dual		Plural
	-a	-ai	-a	-ai	-a	-ai
Accusative	ta	tai	taha	tahai	tama	tamai

	Singular	Dual	Plural
	-ei	-ei	-ei
Accusative	tasei	tahei	tamei

	Singular		Dual		Plural
	-y	-e	-y	-e	-y	-e
Accusative	tasy	tase	tahy	tahe	tamy	tame

Dative

Like the accusative pronouns, dative pronouns are suffixed by a hyphen to the verb according to particle supremacy.

N.B. Ocassionally the final -e is dropped off of the dative pronouns. This varies by dialect, but is becoming more widespread due to frequent use by the younger generation. In the dual, this causes the deletion of /h/.

First person:

	Singular	Dual	Plural
Dative	we	wyhe	wame

Second person:

	Singular	Dual	Plural
Dative	ne	nyhe	name

Third person masculine:

	Singular	Dual	Plural
Dative	mywe	myhe	mame

Third person feminine:

	Singular	Dual	Plural
Dative	lywe	lyhe	lame

Third person inanimate:

	Singular		Dual		Plural
	-a	-ai	-a	-ai	-a	-ai
Dative	te	tie	teha	tehai	tema	temai

	Singular	Dual	Plural
	-ei	-ei	-ei
Dative	tesei	tehei	temei

	Singular		Dual		Plural
	-y	-e	-y	-e	-y	-e
Dative	tesy	tese	tehy	tehe	temy	teme

Locative

The locative pronouns follow most prepositions except fwyt (with) which is specified later.

First person:

	Singular	Dual	Plural
Locative	wu	wyhu	wamu

Second person:

	Singular	Dual	Plural
Locative	nu	nyhu	namu

Third person masculine:

	Singular	Dual	Plural
Locative	mu	myhu	miemu

Third person feminine:

	Singular	Dual	Plural
Locative	lu	lyhu	liemu

Third person inanimate:

	Singular		Dual		Plural
	-a	-ai	-a	-ai	-a	-ai
Locative	tu	ty	tuha	tuhai	tuma	tumai

	Singular	Dual	Plural
	-ei	-ei	-ei
Locative	tusei	tuhei	tumei

	Singular		Dual		Plural
	-y	-e	-y	-e	-y	-e
Locative	tusy	tuse	tuhy	tuhe	tumy	tume

Genitive

First person:

	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	hywa	hyha	hiema
Accusative	hywat	hyhat	hiemat
Dative	hywam	hyham	hiemam
Locative	hywag	hyhag	hiemag

Second person:

	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	nywa	nyha	niema
Accusative	nywat	nyhat	niemat
Dative	nywam	nyham	niemam
Locative	nywag	nyhag	niemag

Third person masculine:

	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	mywa	myha	miema
Accusative	mywat	myhat	miemat
Dative	mywam	myham	miemam
Locative	mywag	myhag	miemag

Third person feminine:

	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	lywa	lyha	liema
Accusative	lywat	lyhat	liemat
Dative	lywam	lyham	liemam
Locative	lywag	lyhag	liemag

Third person inanimate:

	Singular		Dual		Plural
	-a	-ai	-a	-ai	-a	-ai
Nominative	tywa	tywai	tywoha	tywohai	tywoma	tywomai
Accusative	tywat	tywait	tywohat	tywohait	tywomat	tywomait
Dative	tywam	tywaim	tywoham	tywohaim	tywomam	tywomaim
Locative	tywag	tywaig	tywohag	tywohaig	tywomag	tywomaig

	Singular	Dual	Plural
	-ei	-ei	-ei
Nominative	tywei	tywohei	tywomei
Accusative	tyweit	tywoheit	tywomeit
Dative	tyweim	tywoheim	tywomeim
Locative	tyweig	tywoheig	tywomeig

	Singular		Dual		Plural
	-y	-e	-y	-e	-y	-e
Nominative	tywy	tywe	tywohy	tywohe	tywomy	tywome
Accusative	tywyt	tywet	tywohyt	tywohet	tywomyt	tywomet
Dative	tywym	tywem	tywohym	tywohem	tywomym	tywomem
Locative	tywyg	tyweg	tywohyg	tywoheg	tywomyg	tywomeg

Pronoun and Particle Supremacy

Falgwian uses a system of pronoun and particle supremacy whereas post-verbal pronouns and particles, either hyphenated or not, must follow a verb in a strict syntactic order. That order is:

Verb-Accusative-Dative Tense Subjunctive Negative Nominative

For example:

...linokair-ta-ne nas dam wie ha.

Give1PS-it-to you AOR SUB2 NEG I

...that I never gave it to you.

Relative Pronouns

The only relative pronouns still used are naiwa and its declined forms. Only the case has to match its own subordinate clause. To form a relative clause using a question word, hyphenate to the appropriate form below the appropiate question word. The singular -ai forms are the only forms used today. However, for informational sake the entire declension is shown. Other forms are likely to show up in older literature, especially before the mid 19th century. NOTICE ei to ie reversal.

	Singular		Dual		Plural
	-a	-ai	-a	-ai	-a	-ai
Nominative	naiwa	naiwai	henaiwa	henaiwai	manaiwa	manaiwai
Accusative	naiwat	naiwait	henaiwat	henaiwait	manaiwat	manaiwait
Dative	naiwam	naiwaim	henaiwam	henaiwaim	manaiwam	manaiwaim
Locative	naiwag	naiwaig	henaiwag	henaiwaig	manaiwag	manaiwaig
Genitive	naiwan	naiwain	henaiwan	henaiwain	manaiwan	manaiwain

	Singular	Dual	Plural
	-ei	-ei	-ei
Nominative	naiwei	henaiwei	manaiwei
Accusative	naiweit	henaiweit	manaiweit
Dative	naiweim	henaiweim	manaiweim
Locative	naiweig	henaiweig	manaiweig
Genitive	naiwein	henaiwein	manaiwein

	Singular		Dual		Plural
	-y	-e	-y	-e	-y	-e
Nominative	naiwy	naiwe	henaiwy	henaiwe	manaiwy	manaiwe
Accusative	naiwyt	naiwet	henaiwyt	henaiwet	manaiwyt	manaiwet
Dative	naiwym	naiwem	henaiwym	henaiwem	manaiwym	manaiwem
Locative	naiwyg	naiweg	henaiwyg	henaiweg	manaiwyg	manaiwyg
Genitive	naiwyn	naiwen	henaiwyn	henaiwen	manaiwyn	manaiwen

Nouns

Nouns are divided into categories by their nominative endings, -a, -ai, -ie, -y, or -e. The most common ending is -ai, followed by -ie, -y, -a, and rarest, -e. They are occasionally grouped together by ending similarities as -a/-ai, -ie, -e/-y. They are governed by the Nominative, Accusative, Dative, and Locative cases. A Genitive Case is argued to exist, but it is so degraded that some simply call it an irregular system. Cases do not always remove endings, so follow each on a case by case basis.

Accusative Case

-a and -ai nouns add the ending -t

For example:

Taima- Taimat

Taimai- Taimait

-ie nouns take off the -ie and replace it with -y

For example:

Melokie- Meloky

-e and -y nouns add -n

For example:

Fyste- Fysten

Hywy- Hywyn

Dative Case

-a, -ai, and -ie nouns remove their endings and add -u:

Taima- Taimu

Tiemai- Tiemu

Melokie- Meloku

-e and -y nouns add -m

Fyste- Fystem Hywy- Hywym

Other Uses of the Dative

The dative case has another use after the preposition fwyt (with). For example:

Gwier nas tyky fwyt sinelu

I saw a man with a coat.

There are also some verbs which always take the dative, for example, nadysiet (to hold):

Nadysier nas ha medailu uwa hiemag mai'kulinag.

I held the medal firmly in my hands.

Locative Case

The Locative Case is very similar to the same case as used in Slavic languages like Polish or Russian.

-a and -ai nouns add the ending -g.

For example:

Taima- Taimag

Taimai- Taimaig

-ie nouns take off the -ie and replace it with -ig.

For example:

Melokie- Melokig

-e nouns add a -g.

For example:

Fyste- Fysteg

-y nouns take off -y and replace is with -ieg.

For example:

Hywy to Hywieg

Using the Locative for location.

When there is a clause of static location using the copula, you can use the nominative pronoun + locative ending on the noun.

Ha taimaig.

I house-LOC

I'm at the house.

There is also no "to" when using location.

Genitive Case/Condition

The Genitive adds -wydu to the possessed noun, and the possessor remains unmarked. The possessor always comes second to the marked possessed noun and is marked for plurality and case. The possessor also dictates the ending used for the noun phrase. The only exception is that -e nouns take the ending -wydo. du/do is not pronounced in speech.

For example:

Taima-wydu kuwynai

House-GEN dog

The Dog's House

Notice how kuwynai retains its nominative form, while -wydu has been attached to taima.

N.B. -wydu is pronounced /du/ (or /do/ with -e nouns) in most of the southwest of Falgwia and most urban areas. In the rural north and south, but mostly northeast, it is pronounced /w1/.

The genitive can also be used to mark the direct object of a negative verb, but it sounds very poetic and formal and it's hardly used by Falgwians since the genitive is a real pain to speak and write.

Case Summary

	-a	-ai	-ie	-y	-e
Nominative	-a	-ai	-ie	-y	-e
Accusative	-at	-ait	-y	-yn	-en
Dative	-u	-u	-u	-ym	-em
Locative	-ag	-aig	-ig	-ieg	-eg

Dual

If you have only two of a thing, the prefix he' has to be prefixed to the noun and no plural marker is used. He' is pronounced /he/, or occasionally /e/.

Plural

The plural is prefixed, and so it does not interrupt the case endings attached to a noun. There is no plural prefix for -e and -y nouns. The plural marker is derived from the word mugymen meaning "many," and literally means "many," or three or more.

-a nouns: mai'

-ai nouns: ma'

-ie nouns: mu'

-y and -e nouns: No plural possible through prefixation. The particle mugy can precede any -y and -e noun and indicates many.

Comparatives and Superlatives

To form a comparative in Falgwian add the word mise, usually, at the beginning of the sentence, and then followed immediately after by the comparative adjective. The relative pronoun form, naiwa corresponds to English "than."

Mise namedais wat igun taima naiwa agun taima.

More niceADJENDG be3PS that house that yonder house

That house is nicer than that further house.

To form a superlative use the modified form of mise, misenyt, which usually comes at the beginning of the sentence.

Misenyt namedais wat taima.

Most prettyADJENDG is house

That house is the prettiest.

Kalotien-wa ly tiewi wagwiet mysenyt simidies Tyky uwa Artig!

Cause3PS-meACC IMPRF itNOM tobeINFIN most happyADJENDG man on earthLOC!

It made me the happiest man on earth.

N,B.- Misenyt is not the same word as Dak, and can only be used with adjectives in superlative constructions.

To say something is as...as, use the expression My...Ko.

My hwiedes wiet mu'nulanie ko ma'wananai.

As tastyADJENDG are PLRLapple ko PLRLbanana.

Apples are as tasty as bananas.

Verbs

Infinitive

The infinitive ends in -iet or -ait and divides the verb conjugation for the present/base tense.

Infinitive: Mywait- To eat

Infinitive: Faligiet- To want

N.B.- In an infinitive noun phrase, all particles and pronouns follow the first conjugated verb, then any additional infinitives are added.

Present or Base Tense

The present tense (or sometimes, the base tense) conjugation serves as the base for all other tenses, making it the only verb conjugation.

Conjugation Summary:

	-ait	-iet
Ha	-air	-ier
Nywi	-aim	-iem
Mi/Li/Tiewi	-ain	-ien
Hyha	-yr	-yr
Nyhi	-ym	-ym
Myhi/Lyhi/Tiehi	-yn	-yn
Hami	-ir	-ir
Nami	-im	-im
Mami/Lami/Tiemi	-in	-in

Habitual Present Tense

The habitual present tense refers to an action done in habit. Often words in English such as always or every may serve as a cue to when to mark the habitual. It is marked by a prefix to the present tense conjugated verb.

-ait verbs: my'

-iet verbs: mie'

To express a time measurement with the habitual, use the noun adverbially (by first turning it into an adjective by adding -d).

Talaidu my'wonair.

DayAVB work1PS.

I work every day.

Imperfect Tense

The imperfect tense is marked using the particle ly positioned after the verb according to particle supremacy. The particle never inflects for person or number. The imperfect tense serves the purpose of marking an event with no explicit ending. There isn't too much surprising about the imperfect from the imperfect in IE languages. One interesting note is that the imperfect is always used in a main clause even when an ending seems implied.

Takynier ly, hylo hwanysair nas kiewyn.

Study1PS IMPRF, then open1PS AOR doorACC.

I was studying, then I opened the door.

The former clause is an imperfect situation, and the latter an aorist/pretorite situation, depending.

A Special Note Regarding the Imperfect

Among the younger generation, the imperfect is falling out of use, in favour of the pretorite/aorist. While this is not accepted in formal writing and speaking, it is very much becoming the norm in casual speech and writing.

Pretorite Tense

The pretorite tense marks unimportant complete past tense events. It is often paired with the aorist, and is usually not regulated by strict rules, opting rather to be quite subjective. It is marked by a prefix to the present tense conjugated verb.

-ait verbs: fa'

-iet verbs: fy'

The pretorite is often used to set the scene, as opposed to the imperfect.

Fy'wat huladas talai.

PRET'is3PS sunADJENDG day.

It was a sunny day.

The imperfect may be used, if say, someone asked you, "how was the weather yesterday?"

Aorist Tense

The aorist tense is formed with the axillary particle nas which follows the present form of the verb according to particle supremacy. The particle never inflects for person, ending, or number. The aorist serves the purpose of emphasising completed events. It is often paired with the pretorite, and is usually not regulated by strict rules, opting rather to be quite subjective.

Pretorite vs. Aorist

In almost every construction in Falgwian with an independent/main and dependent/subordinate clause, the aorist verb will be the main clause, and the pretorite the subordinate. But don't let this limit you, there are no rules to when to use either tense. One can use the aorist or pretorite, respectively, for an entire paragraph, and in fact, some writers find it preferable.

The tenses allow much more liberal use when used with conjunctions or the like.

Mywair nas nulany, hylo fa'masykair-tasie.

Eat1PS AOR appleACC, then PRET'rid1PS-itACC.

I ate the apple, then I threw it away.

Mywait would most likely be in the aorist, and masykait in the pretorite. But this is not always the case. It depends on the emphasis the speaker is trying to convey.

Habitual Past Tense

The habitual past tense works the same way as the habitual present tense, except it refers to something that used to be done as a habit. It is marked by a prefix to the present tense conjugated verb.

-ait verbs: ty'

-iet verbs: tie'

Verb Summary

	-ait	-iet
Imperfect	ly	ly
Pretorite	fa'	fy'
Aorist	nas	nas
Habitual Present	my'	mie'
Habitual Past	ty'	tie'

Negative

The particle wie means "not" and follows the verb. Wie- can also be hypened to a noun to make its opposite, as in wie-taima (homeless). Falgwian has no concept of the double negative as it is known in English. Various ways to express the negative are outlined below.

Nek- No

Neki- Nothing

Nekan- Nobody/one

Nekut- Nowhere

The negative quantifier will always come after any participle involved in particle supremacy.

Lymier wie neki.

I have nothing.

Gwier wie nekan

I can't see anybody.

N.B.- In Falgwian, a negative sentence that uses any in English, uses nek. Mek is only used in non-negative sentences.

Negative particles can also be stacked up, as such (the order does not matter):

Tywaisair nas wie neki nekut nakan.

I didn't buy anything anywhere for anyone.

Other forms that follow the same rule, but do not use the negative particle wie:

Mek- Any/Some

Mekan- Any/Somebody/one

Meki- Any/Something

Mekut- Any/Somewhere

Dak- Most

Dakan- Most people

Daki- Most things

Dakut- Most places

Tyk- Every/Each/All

Tykan- Everybody/one/Each person/All persons

Tyki- Everything/Each thing/All things

Tykut- Everywhere/Each place/All places

N.B.- To express the opposite of Dak, add San- as a prefix, so Few things is San-dak.

Nekan, Mekan, Dakan, Tykan can also be used as pronouns as mekan/nekan/dakan/tykan-fan:

Tenien mekan-fan mywait.

Anyone can eat.

Subjunctive

Falgwian has 4 subjunctives. Sometimes they are categorised as one subjunctive mood.

Horatory Subjunctive

The horative exhorts others to join in an action. It is best translated as 'Let's' in English.

This subjunctive can be formed by the addition of dy' to -ait verbs and die' to -iet verbs.

Deliberative Subjunctive

The deliberative subjunctive is used to express a question which is either a mere rhetorical device expecting no answer at all, or a real question which expects an answer in the imperative. As in English, 'What shall I say to you? Say this.'

This subjunctive can be formed by the addition of hy' to -ait verbs and ho' to -iet verbs.

Subordinate Subjunctive 1

The first subordinate subjunctive uses the subordinate clause to express purpose. 'I came so that I may/might speak with him.' This subjunctive is an exception to the general rule in that the main clause is more likely to take the pretorite if one is used.

Add the particles dan for -ait verbs and dem for -iet verbs after the verb according to particle supremacy.

One way the first Subordinate Subjunctive is used, is to indicate "to mean" or "meant to." The copula + naiwa must be used.

Mita, fy'wat naiwa niwair nas dan naiwa wiet.... Fa'wat wie naiwa niwair nas dan naiwa wiet....

Sorry, PRET'is3PS that say1PS AOR SUB1 that is3PP.... PRET'is3Ps not that say1PS AOR SUB1 that is3PP....

Sorry, I meant to say (or I had intended on saying) that there are.... I didn't meant to say (or I had no intention of saying) that there are....

Subordinate Subjunctive 2

The second subordinate subjunctive uses the subordinate clause to express doubt, wish, or the like. 'I think that I won't pass the test tomorrow.' Again, in the past, the pretorite is more likely to be in the main clause.

Add the particles dam for -ait verbs and dim for -iet verbs after the verb according to particle supremacy.

Potential Optative

The potential optative marks anything that might happen in the future 'I might go to the mall later' Or 'I might go with him'. There is no marker in Falgwian of absolute future constructions, often indicated in English by 'will'.

To mark the potential optative, add the particles dyn for -ait verbs and dien for -iet verbs after the verb according to particle supremacy.

Imperative

The imperative is very simple, simply drop the t from the infinitive. The imperative can refer to all persons or one person, there is no distinction made. The negative imperative simply adds -wy after the verb.

Passive

To construct the passive in Falgwian, use the conjugated infinitive for the instigator (in English, what is followed by 'by'). Attach the accusative of the object affected by the instigator as well as any other particles after according to particle supremacy. Finally, attach nat by a hyphen to the instigator of the action. Nat is a passive marking particle. Any tense may be used, but the Aorist is most common.

For example:

Lynakien-wa nas nat-tykie

Kick3PS-1PSACC AOR PAS-man

I was kicked by the man

[Lit: Kicked-me by man]

But, what about, I was kicked?

Lynakien-wa nas nat

Kick3PS-meACC AOR PAS

I was kicked.

Irregular Verbs

Infinitive: Wagwiet- To be

Ha- War

Nywi- Wam

Mi/Li/Tiewi- Wat

Hyha- Wys

Nyhi- Wan

Myhi/Lyhi/Tiehi- Wyd

Hami- Wier

Nami- Wiem

Mami/Lami/Tiemi- Wiet

Special Note: When Wagwiet is used with a question word:

Hwar- What

Hwog- How

Hwyn- Which

Hwen- Why

Hwak- When

Hwit- Who

Hwis- Where

It contracts as such: Hwar'a (But: Hwog'ar), Hwar'am, Hwar'at, Hwar'ys (But: Hwis'y), Hwar'an, Hwar'yd, Hwar'ier, Hwar'iem.

Expressions of obligation:

To have to- Fyniet

Adjectives

Adjectives precede the noun, and match the noun in number, ending, and case. They are usually found in the dictionary as ending in a -d, although irregularities do exist. The -d form is also the form used for the plural of -y and -e nouns. When multiple adjectives modify the same noun, they are hyphenated together.

	Singular		Dual		Plural
	-a	-ai	-a	-ai	-a	-ai
Nominative	-ais	-as	-ihais	-ihas	-imais	-imas
Accusative	-ait	-at	-ihait	-ihat	-imait	-imat
Dative	-aim	-am	-ihaim	-iham	-imaim	-imam
Locative	-aig	-ag	-ihaig	-ihag	-imaig	-imag
Genitive	-ain	-an	-ihain	-ihan	-imain	-iman

	Singular	Dual	Plural
	-ie	-ie	-ie
Nominative	-es	-ihes	-imes
Accusative	-et	-ihet	-imet
Dative	-em	-ihem	-imem
Locative	-eg	-iheg	-imeg
Genitive	-en	-ihen	-imen

	Singular		Dual
	-y	-e	-y	-e
Nominative	-ies	-is	-ihies	-ihis
Accusative	-iet	-it	-iheit	-ihit
Dative	-iem	-im	-ihiem	-ihem
Locative	-ieg	-ig	-ihieg	-iheg
Genitive	-ien	-in	-ihien	-ihin

Adverbs

Adverbs precede verbs and generally end in -u, and less often -un. Adverbs are not listed in dictionaries, and are made by the addition of -u or -un to adjectives. They are entirely regular, and go immediately before verbs. To form an adverb, simply add -u to the end of an adjective. Only add -un if the adjective ends in a stop, ie. t, k, n, and m. -n is also used when an adjective ends in a vowel.

Adverbs of Location

Falgwian has several forms for the adverbs of location ie. English here and there

Situ- Here (close to speaker)

Sitymu- There (close to listener)

Sitywu- There (moderately far from speaker (may or may not be close to listener))

Sitylu- Yonder (very far from speaker (may or may not be very far from listener))

Sityhu- Yonder (very far from speaker and listener)

Prepositions

To give a mere list of all Falgwian prepositions, with English equivalents for each of them is futile, since the use of prepositions varies so much from one language to another. For example: the English preposition in frequently corresponds to the Falgwian preposition uwo; but this does not apply to such constructions as in a week (Falgwian: uwa kelimeg), in the reign of King John (Falgwian: yna ewokie-wydu kenig-Ohan), in my opinion (Falgwian: ko hywa tylanai), a man in a coat (Falgwian: tykie fwyt sinelu), in memory of (ko mynasai), etc. The correct use of the prepositions can only be learnt through practice, but examples may give an illustration of their use. The most important Falgwian prepositions are listed below, in their alphabetical order, and for each preposition is given (a) the most important English equivalents, (b) examples illustrating their principal use, and (c) special idioms. Ko is not discussed here. (Loc) indicates that the preposition takes the locative.

Fyrina [f1rina]

(I) In front of

Wam nywi fyrina nu. (Loc) He is in front of you.

Fawynin nas fyrina taimaig. (Loc) They met in front of the house.

(2) Before

Wat mywa tyna-faly fyrina mu. (Loc) His whole life was in front of him.

Hwytin [W1tin]

(I) After (rank, place, number, time, etc.)

Ynamai kiewyn hwytin nu! (Loc) Shut the door after yourself!

Talai hwytin talaig. (Loc) Day after day.

Nadysien nas Mynomasie residenu hwytin Kalutanie. Mynomasie became president after Kalutanie.

(2) For (intention)

Fa'ko li maketie hwytin wutaig. (Loc) She went to the store for butter.

Gwien ly mi hwytin mywag welosiwig. (Loc) He looked for his bike.

Rytamien nas mi taimu hwytin nykonig. (Loc) He wrote home for money.

Faligien ly mi hwytin lu. (Loc) He longed for her.

Ka [ka]

(I) Through

Lynien ly mi ka tylawa memasieg. (Loc) He walked through the forest.

Talyhien nas ka agenig. (Loc) It was sold through an agent.

Fy'fier ka hywag fiekwaig. (Loc) I heard it from my sister.

Gwien ly mi ka okinaig. (Loc) He looked in through the window.

(2) Throughout

Ka mywag falieg. (Loc) Throughout one's life.

Lina [lina]

(I) By, past

Fy'lynien mi lina wu. (Loc) He walked right by me.

(2) Beyond

Wat tiene lina ky. That's way beyond normal.

Tatu [tatu]

(I) From

Lymier sywierait tatu hywa mekie. I have a letter from my friend.

Ko nas mi tatu taimai ko taimai. He went from house to house.

Kelime tatu fwietake. A week from Friday.

Wie tatu- Apart from, besides

(2) Off

Liewysien sarinie tatu wiresie. The wind blows off the pier.

Werytie-no tatu kreditai-wydu nykonie! Keep away from money-lenders!

N.B. The location-wydu form often used to express where one is from can only be used with actual locations or equivalent.

Y [1]

(I) At (aim)

Masykin nas wunyn y kuwynaig. (Loc) They threw stones at the dog.

Masykain nas mami y masieg. (Loc) He aimed at the tree.

Ko Particle

Ko has so many uses in Falgwian, it could almost be thrown into any sentence in any use and go unnoticed. One of Ko's principle functions is to indicate the travel to a place.

Ko ha tywie.

I go to Tywie.

Ko dyn taimai.

Ko FUTSUB I house

I will go to the house.

Faligier ko tywie.

Want1PS I go Tywie

I want to go to Tywie.

Also note that any tense marker (including the potential optative) can be placed directly after ko to indicate the appropriate tense. Ko always takes the -ait form.

Other Particles

Ony Particle:

To say something is about a topic, say politics, or a thing say Ony'politiky, or On' if a vowel. The current genitive is almost definite and is more concrete and formal and some would say slightly archaic. If you want your specific Politics Book, use the Genitive, if you want a book about Politics, say Ony'politiky nywokai. This is also used for names of news companies, magazines, and general companies. It is more indefinite. In fact, in some dialects and demographics, especially among teenagers, the genitive is almost completely falling out of use and being replaced by this About particle.

Tiene Particle:

Tiene means never ever ever ever, and it always goes at the beginning of a sentence. It may or may not be used with a negative sentence for emphasis or lack thereof (does NOT create a double negative).

There is also Tieni+adjective which is roughly equivalent to English so in so much, so hot, etc.

At Particle:

The At particle is no longer used in modern Falgwian. Its use is only preserved in some phrases such At Tugalin (For Lucky's Sake). In some earlier writing--pre 19th century--the at particle may be seen in infinitival phrases Faligier at mywait (I want to eat). This form is no longer used in favour of simply staking the verbs together ie. Faligier mywait.

K'y Particle:

The K'y particle indicates the approachment of a goal. It is a contraction of Ko and Y. Is is used as follows; case markings are not used:

Myrier naiwa katalai hylatier k'y ekisamai.

I believe that I am going to pass the test tomorrow.

Demonstratives

The demonstratives are both adjectives and pronouns and they don't decline. They are not as commonly used as in English or French, and are only beginning to see more usage among the younger generation as a manner to be more expressive. They are from the Polish accusative pronouns.

	Falgwian	English
1	egun	this
2	mugegun	these
3	igun	that
4	mugigun	those
5	agun	yonder
6	mugagun	yonders

Syntax

Except in rare cases such as those mentioned above with comparatives, superlatives, and adverbs, the verb must begin a Falgwian sentence. One exception to this rule not noted above is that, in more elevated speech, if an adverb precedes a verb, the verb can be pushed past the noun in the sentence so long as the subject and object are not pronouns. For example:

Medu mywat wolykait lumasien nas.

He cleaned his room well.

Numbers

See Falgwian Numbers

Numbers in Falgwian are base 5.

	Ordinal
1	dana
2	lana
3	mana
4	wana
5	sana
6	dadana
7	dalana
8	damana
9	dawana
10	dasana

There are no ordinal numbers beyond using the numbers as adjectives. Zero is onama.

Telling Time

Ha is a word used to tell time.

Ha dana.

It is one o'clock.

Ha dana ie lamana.

It is one thirteen.

No words for noon, midnight, etc.

Always use the 24:00 clock.

Hour- Hane (is the origin of ha)

Minute- Tyme

Second- Dyne

No words for quarter past, ten after, etc.

N.B. Ha is pronounced /ha/ not /a/.

Expressing Age

To express age in Falgwian use the expression:

Ko ha walana-wydu.

I am 22 years old.

The expression is very idiomatic, and needs to be memorised as such. To express the past, use a past particle after ko according to particle supremacy. To ask how old someone is use Ko plus the appropriate accusative genitive pronoun:

Ko nywat?

Writing A Letter

Ko ty-Smith

Dear Mr. Smith

(Ko is used for letters or presents to mean to someone. "From" is name-wydu)

For Sincerely use thank you, Malier-na

Patronymic Naming System in Falgwian

Falgwian has a patronymic naming system. It works as follows:

Dadywie Tykonasai has a son named Ty. Ty's last name is then Dadywai. If he has a daughter named Kwiny, her name is Kwiny Dadywai.

So, for example:

Falgwia Press Officer Kwiny Gwamai is the son of Gwamie Hwynitai and Kuly Namonai. Kwiny's husband is Tomaskie Gryzbowskai (from former Polish name Tomasz Gryzbowsky), their kids are Tynie Tomaskai and Lywany Tomaskai. Foreign names can be incorporated into last names, however this is not commonly done. Usually, only the ethnic Flagwians opt to follow the patronymic naming system.

Also note:

Ty-Tynai

Tie-Tienai

Common Phrases and Expressions

Hello- Hywi or Hie or Hai

How are you?- Hwogar nywi? (War merges with question words)

Good- Medy

Bad- Tedy

I am good- War (ha) medy

Thank you- Malier-na (ha)

Goodbye- Mywasim or Mywa

My name is...:

Formal: I call myself...- Hwyfanair-wo (ha)...

Informal: Call me...- Hwyfanai-wa...

What is your name?- Hwar hwyfanait-no (lit: What do you call yourself?)

I am from...- War (ha) ___-wydu (Kind of idiomatic)

Yes- Ka

No- Wi